And God saw everything that he had made, and behold, it was very good.
And there was evening and there was morning, a sixth day.
Genesis 1, 31

The topic of divine sovereignty and the fall of Adam and Eve is a significant point of discussion among Christians. Most Christians, regardless of denomination, affirm that God is sovereign over all creation and that the events surrounding the fall did not catch Him by surprise. Additionally, it is generally accepted that Satan, in his role as a deceiver, could not have surprised God either. However, there are notable differences in how Catholics and many non-Catholic Christians interpret these events, particularly concerning the free will of Adam, Eve, and the serpent. It is important to highlight that neither Satan nor our first parents intentionally caused their own separation from God's grace. The expulsion of Lucifer from heaven and the banishment of Adam and Eve from Eden were not simply orchestrated events allowing for the eventual coming of Jesus Christ solely for God's glory. Many Reformed and Evangelical Protestants hold a different perspective, which raises important theological discussions on the nature of free will and divine sovereignty. Understanding these differing views can enrich the dialogue within the Christian community.

Some Protestants often refer to the concept of double predestination in relation to Ephesians 1:5, which states that “[God] predestined us for adoption to sonship through Jesus Christ, in accordance with his pleasure and will.” This interpretation suggests that God has predetermined certain individuals for salvation while others are destined for eternal condemnation, with the belief that no human being can attain salvation based solely on their own merits, whether natural or supernatural. It is important to note that the term “predestined” is derived from the Greek word προορίζω (proorizó), which translates to “to know or declare in advance.” This indicates that God, in His foreknowledge, has recognized in advance those who will respond with faith and be adopted as His children through Jesus Christ, without necessarily excluding the element of free will in the process.

In his writings, Peter mentions “the elect according to the foreknowledge of God the Father,” referring to faithful Christians who experience sanctification and justification through the work of the Holy Spirit. This divine influence not only prompts but also strengthens believers to remain obedient to Christ, even in the face of persecution and the threat of death due to their faith (1 Peter 1:2). Both St. Paul and St. Peter focus on the concept of predestination to grace rather than predestination to eternal glory, a notion that God has known since before the creation of the world and humanity.

The concept of predestination in relation to martyrs of the faith suggests that they may be destined for glory, although no human can ascertain with absolute certainty whether they are part of the elect chosen for this glory. This understanding is rooted in the belief that such knowledge is exclusive to God, who exists outside of time and knows all things from eternity. A common point of confusion among some non-Catholic individuals involves the terms predestination and predetermination. Predestination refers to God’s foreknowledge regarding the choices individuals make in their journey of faith, particularly in becoming Christians. In contrast, predetermination is the incorrect notion that God coercively determines human actions, leaving no room for individual will.

While it is true that God's omniscience means He knows our choices before we make them, this does not imply that He dictates those choices. For instance, if God knows we will take a specific action, it is solely due to His comprehensive understanding of the future. To illustrate, humans can predict events based on observable signs; for example, if dark rain clouds fill the sky, one might conclude that rain is likely. If rain does occur, it happens not because of the person's forecast, but due to the existing weather conditions independent of their declaration.

The concept of good and evil emphasizes that God is not the author of evil; rather, individuals exercise their free will to make choices between the two. As individuals mature, they have the opportunity to choose baptism and uphold their baptismal commitments. Early Christian martyrs exemplified this choice by embracing Christianity and maintaining their faith in Christ, even in the face of suffering and death. Their decision was driven by a profound love for Christ, rather than any predetermined role. Moreover, God’s nature is characterized by forbearance, as He desires that none should perish but that all should attain repentance. This desire for salvation underscores the belief that, while God wishes for all to be saved, salvation is contingent upon an individual’s willingness to repent and accept God’s grace, as prompted by the Holy Spirit, as noted in 2 Peter 3:9.

He is the Rock, his works are perfect, and all his ways are just.
A faithful God who does no wrong, upright and just is he.
Deuteronomy 32, 4

No one, when tempted, should say, ‘I am being tempted by God’;
for God cannot be tempted by evil and he himself tempts no one.
James 1, 13

The theological perspective asserts that it was not part of God's plan from the beginning of creation for all humanity to experience spiritual death through Adam in order for them to be made alive in Christ. According to this view, God did not create individuals as sinners merely to establish a need for Jesus as a means of redemption from divine justice. This line of thinking can be seen as placing priorities inappropriately. While it is acknowledged that humanity's fall did not catch God off guard, due to His omniscience, it is also emphasized that He did not unconditionally ordain or decree the fall of Adam and Eve. If God were to act capriciously in such matters, He would bear full moral responsibility for their transgressions. In this scenario, the concepts of sin and the necessity of a savior would be rendered meaningless.

In Catholic theology, it is believed that God permitted the fall of humanity, though it was not something He desired. The fall occurred for the sake of a greater good, indicating that it was part of a divine plan, but it was not intentionally caused by God. While God, as the creator of Adam and Eve, knew that their actions would lead to the fall of all their descendants (as referenced in Romans 3:23), He is not seen as morally responsible for human sins. Furthermore, the role of the serpent is significant, as it introduced temptation to Eve. This suggests that Adam and Eve possessed free will; they had the ability to make choices that led to their transgressions. Consequently, individuals are morally accountable for their sins, which is essential for the concept of just rewards and punishments from God. In this framework, humans are granted the freedom to choose between right and wrong, obedience and disobedience, and life and death, as highlighted in Deuteronomy 30:19.

Jesus entered the world as a response to the presence of sin, which did not originate from Him. It is important to understand that God did not design the world to necessitate sin as a means to demonstrate His divine mercy. The permission of humanity's fall was contingent upon God's foreknowledge that Jesus would arrive and offer a life far more splendid than the preternatural existence of the original paradise. Throughout history, God has consistently demonstrated His love and commitment to our spiritual well-being, a sentiment that existed even before the creation of Adam. Notably, God's omnipotence and sovereignty do not undermine His attributes of mercy and justice. Instead, all of God's fundamental characteristics exist in a harmonious balance.

Rid yourselves of all the offenses you have committed, and get
a new heart and a new spirit. Why will you die, people of Israel?
For I take no pleasure in the death of anyone, declares the Sovereign Lord.
Repent and live!
Ezekiel 18:32

God is not the author of confusion, but of peace.
1 Corinthians 14, 33

In Eastern Catholic theology, a significant distinction is made between God's desires and His decrees. God's desires are referred to as His antecedent will, while His decrees are understood as His consequent will, as detailed by St. John of Damascus in An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith: Book 2, Chapter 29. According to this theology, God desires that all people be saved, as supported by various scripture references such as Ezekiel 18:23, 1 Timothy 2:4, and 1 John 2:2. However, it is also decreed that unrepentant souls face eternal damnation as a consequence of their grave sins, as indicated in passages like Matthew 25:41 and Luke 13:3. The divine intention, based on God's desires, was to create a world where each individual could freely respond to His grace, thereby expressing their love for Him. This concept emphasizes that genuine love requires human free will and liberty. The fall of Adam and Eve is attributed to their moral freedom—an essential attribute that God, in His goodness and justice, granted them in order for them to engage in a true relationship of love with Him (as referenced in John 14:23). Ultimately, it was their excessive self-love that led to their deception by the serpent and subsequent disobedience to God.

The concept of predestination in relation to salvation holds that, due to the fall of humanity foreseen by God at the creation of the world, He established a predestined plan to offer grace and the opportunity for salvation to those who fall from grace. In this understanding, individuals have the ability to willfully reject this divinely intended plan for their salvation, resulting in eternal damnation. It is posited that God desires for each soul to be saved by embracing His word and accepting His grace. Conversely, when an individual chooses to reject this grace, they are viewed as reprobate, leading God to predestinate them to eternal separation from Him as an expression of His justice. This perspective reflects a consistent view of God who does not act in contradiction to His own nature. While it is emphasized that God wishes for everyone to come to repentance and attain salvation, there is also recognition of His justice, which does not tolerate sin and enforces punishment upon those who refuse to repent. This is encapsulated in the biblical message: “The soul who sins is the one who will die” (Ezek 18:4).

The concept of predestination, particularly double predestination, suggests that God determines the eternal fate of souls in advance. However, many believe that this is not the case. Instead, the argument is made that God invites individuals to follow His commands and engage with His saving grace, as seen in passages like 2 Corinthians 7:1 and Ephesians 6:11-13. The intention behind these calls is to encourage personal transformation and spiritual growth. If God were truly a source of confusion rather than peace, it would seem inconsistent for Him to urge individuals to abandon their worldly ways and open their hearts to His Spirit, thereby fostering reconciliation and the promise of eternal life with Him.

And he shewed me Joshua the high priest standing before the angel
of the LORD, and Satan standing at his right hand to resist him.
And the LORD said unto Satan, The LORD rebuke thee, O Satan;
even the LORD that hath chosen Jerusalem rebuke thee: is not this a brand
plucked out of the fire?
Zechariah 3:1,2

Submit therefore to God. Resist the devil and he will flee from you.
Draw near to God, and He will draw near to you. Cleanse your hands
you sinners, and purify your hearts, you double-minded.
James 4, 7

The philosophical consideration of evil in relation to God's goodness raises important questions about the nature of divinity. If God were to intentionally create evil as opposed to the good that He desires, this would call into question His goodness. In this context, if God is not fundamentally good, it implies that there could be no true goodness within His creation, aligning with the notion presented in Genesis 1:31, which describes creation as "very good." Humans possess the ability to discern right from wrong, granting them the freedom to make choices that may align with or oppose God's will, who embodies ultimate goodness. In light of this, it is significant to note that God, in His inherent goodness and mercy, has equipped humanity with sufficient grace. This divine grace empowers individuals to resist evil temptations and choose paths that are good and pleasing to God.

Understanding morality and the nature of good and evil is deeply tied to human conscience and free will. In order to recognize something as evil, an individual must first have an understanding of what is good, as measured by their conscience. The existence of conscience suggests that humans possess free will and moral responsibility. It can be argued that if God were the author of evil, He would not have instilled a conscience in humanity.

Central to this discussion is the concept of love, which is fundamentally good and originates from God, characterized as love itself due to His inherent goodness. However, there is a distinction between healthy love and inordinate self-love. The latter can lead to selfishness, which is considered an evil that arises from a void within our natural tendencies. God encourages individuals to love themselves, but this love should be in moderation. He also calls for the renunciation of selfish desires, as these often lead to actions that are contrary to His will and harmful to others. It is crucial to recognize that individuals cannot place moral blame on God for their innate tendencies toward selfishness or what is often described as original sin. Human beings are responsible for their thoughts and actions, possessing the moral agency and rational capacity to reject selfish impulses and avoid situations that may lead to sin.

Temptations are an inherent part of the created order, and Satan has been granted a specific limit within which to operate. The presence of the devil complicates our ability to overcome these temptations. In the biblical narrative, God pointed to the serpent as responsible for the events that unfolded in the Garden of Eden (Gen 3:14). However, it is crucial to recognize that Adam and Eve made a personal choice to act on the serpent’s words, which appealed to their excessive self-love. They bear moral responsibility for their decisions. Instead of maintaining their relationship with God, our first parents opted to separate themselves from Him in an attempt to attain divinity independently and contrary to His will. Eve's lack of resistance to the serpent's deception contributed to its success, as she found the temptation more enticing than her connection to the Creator, choosing the created over the Creator.

In His goodness and kindness, God encourages individuals to renounce pride and excessive self-love, which are often the root causes of sin. By humbling ourselves before Him, we open the door for Him to assist us in overcoming the deceptive temptations of evil that stem from our limited perspective (1 Pet 5:6). It is essential for us to allow God to guide us, as we may struggle with insufficient resistance to temptation due to our natural desire to seek out pleasures that ultimately do not serve our well-being and can even enslave us.

A clean heart create for me, God;
renew within me a steadfast spirit.
Do not drive me from before your face,
nor take from me your holy spirit.
Restore to me the gladness of your salvation,
and uphold me with a willing spirit.
Psalm 51, 12-14

If then you have been raised with Christ, seek the things
that are above, where Christ is, seated at the right hand of God.
Set your minds on things that are above, not on things that are on
earth. For you have died, and your life is hid with Christ in God.
When Christ who is our life appears, then you also will appear with
him in glory. Put to death therefore what is earthly in you: immorality,
impurity, passion, evil desire, and covetousness, which is idolatry. On
account of these the wrath of God is coming.
Colossians 3, 1-6

St. Thomas Aquinas explains that perfection, in a worldly context, is defined as an individual or entity fulfilling its intended purpose. For humans, this perfection is realized through the pursuit of our ultimate goal: understanding God and aligning our will with His by conforming to His divine will. Adam and Eve were created in a sufficient manner, though not in absolute perfection. The Catholic Church teaches that only God embodies true perfection, as He is fully actualized and possesses no potential for deficiency. Aquinas posits that the degree of perfection in beings correlates with their actuality. While Adam and Eve were created in a state of goodness, they were still capable of falling short of their purpose, which was to cultivate a relationship of goodness and friendship with God. It can be argued that if God bears any responsibility for imperfection, it stems from His decision to create a world that allows for free choice—the capacity to accept or reject Him. Ultimately, God desires a true relationship with humanity and wishes for all to be united with Him in Heaven.

Ontologically, absolute perfection and immutability are fundamental attributes of God, intricately linked to His divine essence. These characteristics unify His various attributes, ensuring that God’s faithfulness and justice are rooted in His unchanging nature. Immutability suggests that God cannot act in a way that contradicts His own essence, meaning He is incapable of wrongdoing. Consequently, God remains consistently perfect, neither improving upon Himself nor diminution in His attributes. His righteousness and justice are equally immutable; God cannot exhibit less righteousness or justice than human beings can, nor can He exceed our understanding of these virtues. This concept is encapsulated in God’s declaration to Moses, “I am who I am” (Exodus 3:14), emphasizing that God cannot be more or less than His true nature.

This argument posits that if God had directly caused or predetermined Adam and Eve to sin, it would imply that He acted unjustly, which contradicts the nature of a just and loving God. Such an action would suggest a lack of immutability in God, as it would indicate an ability to change in a way that undermines His own character. Therefore, a true Christian belief system cannot support the idea that God compelled Adam and Eve to sin against their will, as this would necessitate the existence of a savior for humanity. An immutable God, by definition, would not act capriciously to His own detriment.

In guilt I was born; a sinner was I conceived.
Psalm 51, 5

As noted above, the concept of divine justice raises important questions about the nature of God and human free will. If God predetermines the actions of individuals, it challenges the rationale for rewarding the righteous and punishing the wicked. In theological discussions, God is often viewed as the embodiment of perfection, characterized by absolute love, righteousness, and justice. This perspective suggests that there cannot be anything less than perfect in the divine nature. Thus, the idea of a deity who arbitrarily condemns individuals without reason or rewards those who do not deserve it creates a logical inconsistency. Such a view contradicts the fundamental attributes ascribed to God, leading to the argument that a true God must align with moral perfection.

The original state of sanctity and justice is compromised by humanity's potential to sin against God. Despite this, original human goodness is evident in our inherent inclination toward what is good, a quality that stems from our relationship with God. Individuals have the capacity to willfully pursue good, supported by God's sufficient grace, since God embodies goodness, and we are made in His divine image. However, due to the fall, human nature is wounded, leading us to sometimes choose options that are not pleasing to God, despite our understanding of good and evil. This concept underscores the idea that pride can precede our moral failures.

Adam and Eve represent a fundamental aspect of human nature, embodying the inherent selfishness that exists within us all. This inherited trait is a part of our natural being, which highlights the ongoing need for personal transformation and reconciliation with God’s grace. While we are not entirely deprived of goodness, we do possess imperfections in our autonomy. The feelings of shame that arise from our sins serve as a reminder that, at our core, human beings are fundamentally good, having been made in the divine image—a quality that Adam's transgressions did not completely diminish for future generations (Gen 1:26). The challenge lies in living up to this ideal, a task that is attainable with God’s grace, which is essential for our salvation (1 Jn 1:5-7).

Early Sacred Tradition

St. (Pope) Clement of Rome (A.D. 98)
Epistle to the Corinthians, 30

“Seeing, therefore, that we are the portion of the Holy One, let us do all those things which
pertain to holiness, avoiding all evil-speaking, all abominable and impure embraces, together
with all drunkenness, seeking after change, all abominable lusts, detestable adultery, and
execrable pride. ‘For God,’ saith [the Scripture], ‘resisteth the proud, but giveth grace to the
humble.’ Let us cleave, then, to those to whom grace has been given by God. Let us clothe
ourselves with concord and humility, ever exercising self-control, standing far off from all
whispering and evil-speaking, being justified by our works, and not our words.”

St. Ignatius of Antioch (c. A.D. 107)
To the Ephesians

“I do not mean to say that there are two different human natures, but all
humanity is made the same, sometimes belonging to God and sometimes to the
devil. If anyone is truly spiritual they are a person of God; but if they are
irreligious and not spiritual then they are a person of the devil, made such not
by nature, but by their own choice.”

St. Justin Martyr (A.D. 160)
Apologia 2

“But neither do we affirm that it is by fate that men do what they do, or suffer what they suffer,
but that each man by free choice acts rightly or wrongly…The stoics, not observing this,
maintained that all things take place according to the necessity of fate. But since God, in the
beginning made the race of men and angels with free will they will justly suffer in eternal fire the
punishment of whatever sins they have committed, and this is the nature of all that is made, to
be capable of vice and virtue.”

St. Tatian the Syrian (A.D. 170)
Address to the Greeks 7

“The wicked man is justly punished, having become depraved of himself;
and the just man is worthy of praise for his honest deeds,
since it was in his free choice that he did not transgress the will of God.”

St. Irenaeus of Lyon (inter A.D. 180-189)
Against Heresies, 5:10,1

"So likewise men, if they do truly progress by faith towards better things, and receive the Spirit of
God, and bring forth the fruit thereof, shall be spiritual, as being planted in the paradise of God.
But if they cast out the Spirit, and remain in their former condition, desirous of being of the flesh
rather than of the Spirit, then it is very justly said with regard to men of this stamp, 'That flesh
and blood shall not inherit the kingdom of God;' just as if any one were to say that the wild olive
is not received into the paradise of God."

St. Cyprian of Carthage (A.D. 254)
On Works and Alms, 14

"You are mistaken, and are deceived, whosoever you are, that think yourself rich in this world.
Listen to the voice of your Lord in the Apocalypse, rebuking men of your stamp with righteous
reproaches: 'Thou sayest,' says He, 'I am rich, and increased with goods, and have need of nothing;
and knowest not that thou art wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked. I counsel
thee to buy of me gold tried in the fire, that thou mayest be rich; and white raiment, that thou
mayest be clothed, and that the shame of thy nakedness may not appear in thee; and anoint
thine eyes with eye-salve, that thou mayest see.' You therefore, who are rich and wealthy, buy for
yourself of Christ gold tried by fire; that you may be pure gold, with your filth burnt out as if by
fire, if you are purged by almsgiving and righteous works. Buy for yourself white raiment, that
you who had been naked according to Adam, and were before frightful and unseemly, may be
clothed with the white garment of Christ. And you who are a wealthy and rich matron in Christ's
Church, anoint your eyes, not with the collyrium of the devil, but with Christ's eye-salve, that you
may be able to attain to see God, by deserving well of God, both by good works and character."

"Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect."
Matthew 5, 48